3. The literature that has followed this keystone research (e.g., Acharya 2004; Cortell and Davis 2005; Farrell 2005; Mastenbroek and Kaeding 2006; Kornprobst 2007; Capie 2008) moves beyond the boundaries of earlier socialization research, especially the tendency to focus on displacement of local/domestic ideas with international norms through transnational teaching (Finnemore 1996; Finnemore and Sikkink 1998; Keck and Sikkink 1998; Risse, Ropp, and Sikkink 1999) or to attribute norm diffusion to fit between global and local norms (Cortell and Davis 1996; Florini 1996). (One of the foundational texts that covers chapters on security and strategic culture, albeit from a mainly conventional perspective). How strong is the nuclear taboo today? Studies of contestation and norm change have begun to examine diverse issues like organizational change in international financial institutions (Nielson, Tierney, and Weaver 2006; Chwieroth 2008); European integration (Meyer 2005; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007; Dimitrakopoulos 2008); environment (Bailey 2008); election monitoring (Kelley 2008); and security (Kornprobst 2007). What does it derive its name from (it's fundamental proposition)? The logic of anarchy is but one way in which it is possible to imagine how the international system works. In essence, these scholars and those who draw upon their work consider that much of behavior in world politics arises from ingrained, unconscious motivations either habits or practices that drive precognitive behavior. In addition to considering how the two types of norm dynamics are related, the current norms literature brings traditional open questions in constructivism into sharp relief. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-saddam-idUSTRE56113O20090702. European Security, 27(3), 374392. Abstract. But NATO transformed itself into something more than a military alliance. Moreover, the Geneva Convention is an example of both a regulative and a constitutive norm, in that it not only proscribes state behavior but established a new international normative order, creating expectations for international behavior. Norms are shared beliefs, knowledge, and practice about the world in this sense, they are intersubjective, meaning a norm can be understood and shared amongst actors. Norm contestation during the US War on Terror. If any further proof were needed for the continuing rise to fame of constructivism in International Relations, this would be it . Two types of normative dynamics can be identified: the first is endogenous contestation; the second is compliance or diffusion. In P. J. Katzenstein (Ed. According to this approach, the behaviour of humans is determined by their identity, which itself is shaped by society's values, history, practices, and institutions. Second, there is a division between what is generally called conventional and critical constructivism (Hopf 1998), largely over questions of state centricity and treatment of identity. On the contrary, discursive interventions contribute to challenging the meaning of norms and subsequently actors are likely to reverse previously supported political positions. The current norm contestation literature explores processes through which actors come to understand shared norms differently, contest each others understandings, and how the contestation alters/reifies the norms that constitute a community of norm acceptors together (Hoffmann 2005; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007; Chwieroth 2008; Sandholtz 2008). In this regard, although posited by Wendt as a via media (1992, 1999) or middle ground (Adler 1997) with rationalism, constructivism offers a different view of key concepts like power. In R. Abrahamsen & A. Leander (Eds. Cham: Springer. ), The culture of national security: Norms and identity in world politics (pp. Constructivism is an International Relations (IR) theory. (2008a). Steele, B., Gould, H., & Kessler, O. Moravcsik, A. It has major implications for an understanding of knowledge, including scientific knowledge, and how to achieve it. However, this focus did little to advance understanding of how norms themselves change without necessarily being replaced (Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007; Hoffmann 2005; Chwieroth 2008; Sandholtz 2008). This was a vastly different kind of theorizing than was current in the mainstream of international relations that was locked in the neorealist/neoliberal debate (e.g., Krasner 1983; Keohane 1984, 1986; Baldwin 1990; Grieco 1990). An unnecessary war. The initial wave of empirical norms work provided a solid foundation for the newly emergent constructivist approach, but it tended to bracket the vibrant existence of norms themselves. ), Routledge handbook of private security studies (pp. On the contrary, early, empirically oriented constructivists worked to demonstrate that shared ideas about appropriate state behavior had a profound impact on the nature and functioning of world politics. Farrell, T. (2002). 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Following the initial success of empirical norms studies that established the efficacy of studying norms and showed that they mattered, current norms research explores when/where norms matter and how/when/why norms themselves change to a greater extent. Even among security communities such as the Nordic states, different strategic cultures can be found because they are informed by a range of historical and cultural experiences, with different experiences of war and conflict, membership of alliances, and other factors (see special issues of Cooperation and Conflict (2005) and Global Affairs (2018) for further discussions). 1516). Conventional constructivists like Wendt see similarities between constructivism and rationalist perspectives and methodologies. (1999). Weinhabits world of our making" (Onuf,1989),and setion i . In his view, theories of cultures can not supplant theories of politics, and no casual theory of identity construction exists. European Journal of International Relations, 5(4), 435450. e. In international relations, constructivism is a social theory that asserts that significant aspects of international relations are shaped by ideational factors. But norms are never static and this meaning has also changed over time for instance, with the rise of Responsibility to Protect (R2P), sovereignty as an institution has become contingent on states fulfilling certain criteria such as not committing human rights abuse. Sending goes so far as to claim that the logic of appropriateness is incompatible with constructivist thought because it violates the tenets of mutual constitution and does not allow for change he contends (2002:458) that in the logic of appropriateness, social structure has objective authority over actors, not allowing for the kind of reflection necessary for mutual constitution and change. Critiques of constructivism tend to come from three areas: rationalist criticisms, issues over how constructivists see identity, and finally, criticism that constructivism is apolitical. IR: The resurrection or new frontiers of incorporation. In international relations, constructivism is a social theory that asserts that significant aspects of international relations are shaped by ideational factors (which are historically and socially constructed), not simply material factors. Constructivism has provided a broader approach to understanding international relations and security beyond rationalist frameworks. It will then consider some key criticisms of this approach and conclude with a short summary. International Relations: Constructivism pt1 1. For neorealists, the relative material capabilities of states determine hierarchy and power in international relations. Social constructivism is not among the most popular theoretical approaches used in forecasting in International Relations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Constructivists argue that international life is social, resulting from the ways people interact with each other (i.e. This is akin to what Krebs and Jackson (2007:434) describe as implication contests where actors agree on the nature of an issue, but not the policy implications and framing contests where there is fundamental disagreement about the situation at hand. In addition, norms-oriented research and the constructivist literature writ large has begun to concern itself more with research questions that fall out from constructivist thought independently without as much reference to competing approaches (Checkel 2004). Finally, the third theory of international relations, known as Constructivism, focuses on ideas, shared beliefs and identity as the main drivers of success. Bjrkdahl, A. Early empirical approaches did engage with normative dynamics and change (e.g., Finnemore and Sikkink 1998), but the understanding of dynamics and change was relatively circumscribed. This logic structured seminal empirical work that endeavored to show how ideational and normative factors could explain puzzles in world politics (e.g., Klotz 1995; Finnemore 1996). - Ikechukwu Aloysius Orjinta - Google Books Sign in Try the new Google Books Books View sample Add to my library. Trust, collective identity, shared norms, and intersubjective meanings are important for alliances and security communities, helping to ensure collective vision and purpose (Adler and Barnett 1998). Cooperation and Conflict, 51(2), 184199. The Sandholtz (2008:121) passage quoted above brings together the two types of normative dynamics discussed in this section. Those facts that rely on human agreement (institutional facts) differ from brute facts (like mountains, for example), which do not need human institutions for their existence. 1999). Assuming that actors reason through social norms means beginning analysis with the understanding that the very way that actors view and understand the world is shaped by social norms. (pp. But Wendt also identified a Lockean culture that demonstrated some restraint in warfare and a Kantian culture that was guided more by cooperation (Wendt 1999). How is it that western states like the UK, for example, do not fear thousands of nuclear weapons that the USA possesses, but worries about states like Iran or North Korea, who hold far fewer nuclear weapons? However, the separation between the two kinds of norms research discussed above may ultimately be artificial. New York: Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.1080/23340460.2018.1533385. (1999). Another topic that requires further consideration in future research is the relationship between intersubjective and subjective reality. The ability to apprehend what is going on inside actors heads to understand motivations and interpretations is currently a matter for debate (Cederman and Daase 2003; Jackson 2004; Wendt 2004; Krebs and Jackson 2007) but, that debate notwithstanding, the notion that different actors within the same normative community i.e., a group structured by the same norm(s) could have different and contested understandings of that norm is at the foundation of the recent work on norm contestation. Third, critical scholars argue that constructivism is deeply flawed because it is apolitical, does not adequately analyze categories such as norms, or simply resurrects rationalist ideas. In this regard Social Constructivism ushers itself in, in the discipline of International Relations as a new alternative to the traditional theories that have hitherto monopolized the way political scientists have been viewing the inter - and intrastate events. Less explicit attention was paid to the alternative perspectives on socialization: processes by which groups are maintained, the manner in which the targets of socialization affect both the socializers and targets of socialization (see Acharya 2004; Ba 2006), or the socialization of reluctant powerful actors (Cortell and Davis 2006; Johnston 2008). Actors (usually powerful ones, like leaders and influential citizens) continually shape - and sometimes reshape - the very nature of international relations through their actions and interactions. 317356). This chapter will take the reader through the key ideas of social constructivism also referred to as constructivism in this chapter showing how norms, culture, and ideas about identity shape actors, condition their relations with each other, and can impact the so-called given nature of international relations and transform understandings of power relations. On the contrary, this analytic device has a deep history in the sociological and economic literatures. The work of Cortell and Davis (2005) and Acharya (2004) are relevant examples of this type of compliance research. Considering other factors to explain why states behave the way they do. 1 2. introduction "the focus of social constructivism is on human awareness or consciousness and its place in world affairs. - Checkel (1998) argues that "without more sustained attention . Combining the beliefs, norms and values of influential individuals, as well as the state as a whole, creates its identity, which then influences its behaviors. The second is compliance or diffusion actors from different normative communities seek to enlarge their communities or to hold on to extant norms in the face of external normative challenges and disputes that arise can lead to normative change in both communities. [1] [2] [3] The most important ideational factors are those that are collectively held; these collectively held beliefs construct the interests and identities of actors. ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. For liberals, the belief that liberal ideas such as democracy and the free market are ideas to be shared to make the world a better place suggests a transfer of ideas rather than an exchange of ideas. Realist international relations theory and the military. Having made the case that norms matter and having developed a number of theoretical frameworks to show how norms emerge, spread, and influence behavior, normsoriented constructivists have begun to turn their attention to a new set of questions. Critiques Lack a theory of agency: - According to Hopt (The Promise of Constructivism in international relations theory, 1998), constructivism is an approach, not a theory; or at most a theory of process. Allowing the meaning of social norms to vary in the course of analysis can quickly devolve into an expository morass. This pivot is an interesting development in norms research for two reasons. Contestation over variants of universal participation then had significant impact on the evolution of the universal participation norm and climate governance outcomes. As we have seen in chapter 4, various factors can influence a country's interpretation of a convention. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. A further example of norm erosion can be seen in the norm against the use of torture. Social constructivism can also help make sense of security and military phenomena, such as alliances and threat perceptions, or why states go to war. Constructivist security studies: Portrait of a research program. For constructivists, a focus on identity makes it possible to consider more deeply how domestic factors, ideas, discourses, cultures, and norms shape the interests of states and the choices states make. This criticism over methodology, it should be noted, does not wholly apply to the conventional strand of constructivism, which Wendt says can employ positivist scientific methods to verify or falsify claims (Wendt 1999); for example, to know something about a states military culture, one could look to opinion polls, regulations, training manuals, and the curricula at military academies that can provide data or information about how ideas and norms inform approaches to military organization and culture (Farrell 2002, pp. Central to constructivism are concepts such as norms, institutions, and culture. Cooperation and Conflict, 49(4), 519535. It brought former Warsaw Pact nations into its fold and strengthened convergence around normative issues such as human rights through social learning (Gheciu 2005; Fierke and Wiener 1999). Cooperation and Conflict, 40(1), 523. Global Affairs, 4, (45), 355362. This dynamism, it should also be noted, may not always be positive ideas about security can also regress or become less normative or progressive. Meanings: socially constructed. Constructivisms overwhelming focus on the state and state agents obscures other actors and processes. Constructivism is relevant to military studies in numerous ways. In P. M. Haas (Ed. International Organization, 52(4), 887917. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. It examines the socialization process as more one of contestation between different normative systems and has broadened the scope of analysis to include attempts at socializing both powerful and weaker actors. In this sense, power is a social category. Identities are formed through shared meanings and understandings of the world, which then brings in culture, intersubjective or shared meanings and norms and values. The strange career of Constructivism in International Relations" en Puchala, Do . First, norms are relatively stable if they were not, it would be hard to justify or observe this analytic category. Save. talk, follow norms, create rules, etc.). This is particularly relevant to military studies in terms of understanding the strategic culture of specific states: culture can have an important influence on how states see security, how they interpret threat and train and organize their military forces. Giddens (1984:22) argued that social rules do not specify all the situations which an actor might meet with, nor could [they] do so; rather, [they] provide for the generalized capacity to respond to and influence an indeterminate range of social circumstances. Until recently this insight was often bracketed and it was assumed that norm acceptors follow the norms that structure their community relatively unproblematically. Those who study contestation do allow for reasoning about norms, appealing to notions of interpretation to generate different understandings of a norm with a community of norm acceptors. Consider the shared norms that define military conduct and the institutions that have evolved around military practice; from the Geneva Conventions to the classic texts on warfare that are part of military training, a process of social interaction is taking place where norms are learned, and culture and identity are shaped. While early constructivist theorizing proved to be an exciting new avenue for thinking about international relations in the abstract, both constructivists and their critics were eager to see constructivist theory applied empirically. After all, these were Cold War institutions whose purpose was now over with the end of superpower politics. New York: Columbia University Press. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Ones position on this spectrum of reasoning about norms or reasoning through norms has consequences. Other scholars deemed the logic of appropriateness (as well as the logics of consequences and arguing) to be too agentic to fit well with constructivist tenets. The Washington Quarterly, 41(3), 89109. Interpreting the impact of a norm. Reuters, 2 July. It then turns to a discussion of two directions currently being explored in social norms research and the open questions that remain. Constructivism insists that reality is subjective. He argued: If behavior in the real social world can almost always be located in some of the intermediate spaces between the corners of the triangle, one single metatheoretical orientation will probably not capture it. Mitzen, J. Social Constructivism is one of international relations approach. This is a continuous, two-way process (2013, p. 4). On the learning literature more generally, see Levy , Jack , "Learning and Foreign Policy: Sweeping a Conceptual Minefield (Review Article)," International Organization 48 (Spring 1994 . It was a tool for constructivists to show that ideas, norms, and morals mattered vis--vis rationalist variables in explanations of world political phenomena. Constructivisms key influences come from sociological and philosophical perspectives on the nature of reality and phenomena, which brings knowledge, language, and social relations to the fore. Sookermany, A. M. (2021). In the last decade the development of constructivist thought and empirical research has been occurring more on terms defined by constructivism itself (Checkel 2004). This social learning aspect differs from realisms prescriptive approach that says nations will follow the strongest militaries to develop their strength and technological prowess with the anarchic structure of the international system guiding this logic. 23) and recognized as a medium of exchange for goods and services. Norms in international relations: Some conceptual and methodological reflections. A similar concern motivated Risse (2000) to draw on Habermass work with communicative action and propose a new behavioral logic that would inject agency and more purposive reflection into the process of social construction. For philosopher John Searle, language played an equally significant role. Social Constructivism sees the whole discipline of International Relations as a social construction. They are both based on philosophical views. For example, norms can challenge practices and beliefs that are seen to be no longer fit for purpose. Theories of International Relations. Constructivism had been marginalized by these mainstream theories because it focused on social construction instead of material construction (Barkin, 2017). Part of Springer Nature. Comprised of a series of conventions that go back to 1864, it is now a part of customary international law, so it applies to all states during warfare. London: Penguin. Anarchy is what states make of it: The social construction of power politics. Social constructivism primarily seeks to demonstrate how the core aspects of the international relations are contrary to the assumptions of Neorealism and Neoliberalism within the frame of social construction, taking up forms of ongoing processes of social practice and interaction. This type of compliance research between constructivism and rationalist perspectives and methodologies actors are likely reverse... Recently this insight was often bracketed and it was assumed that norm acceptors follow norms... 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